Morphology of English Words




a description of morphological features
applied to the Bloo Bouk code



1. The morphological features most relevant to the Bloo Bouk practice are: (a) affixes, (b) derivation, (c) composition, (d) inflections, (e) particles, (f) contractions.

Affixes



2. Affixes are morphemes added to a word to change or restrict meaning:

  • Prefixes are added to the beginning of a word.
  • Suffixes are added to the end of a word.

3. Prefixes may by monophonic or polyphonic:

  • Monophonic prefixes are always pronounced the same way, e.g. con-, en-, ob-.
  • Polyphonic prefixes are pronounced in different ways, e.g. re-: repórt, rèpresènt, récreæt.

4. Suffixes may be reliable or unreliable:

  • Reliable suffixes indicate stress reliably, e.g. -abel, -cion, -ity.
  • Unreliable suffixes are unreliable stress indicators, e.g. -ent: indécent, innocent.

A. Prefixes

A non-exhaustive list of English prefixes


Nordic

a-akin, alyv, alœn, aryz
aut-autcawst, autgoing, autsyd
awfter-awfterlyf, awfterthoat
bak-bakfyer, bakgraund, baklash
bi-bicum, bifor, bihæv, bispœk
by-bygon, bystander
daun-daunfoal, daunlœd, dauntaun
for-forget, forgiv, forgo, forsee, fortel
hynd-hyndsyt, hyndbræn, hyndgut
in-incum, infyting, input, intæk
mis-misunderstand, mistæk, misspel
œver-œvercum, œverlouk, œvertæk
of-ofset, ofspring, ofshor
on-ongoing, onsloat
self-selfhelp, selfkear, selfluv
step-stepsister, stepmudder
to-togedder
un-undo, unhelthy, unnœn, unty
under-undercut, understand, undertæk
up-upbringing, upset, uptæk
widd-widdhœld, widdstand, withdroa

*widddroa > withdroa



Greek

a-amórfos, àpathy, apàthik
amfi-amfithìater, amfìbian, amfètamin
an-ànurizem, anesthètik, anémia
ana-analòggik, anàthema, ànalyz
anti-antìthessis, àntidœt, àntibyòtik
apo-apòkalips, apòkrifal, apòssel
arch-archbìshop, archdíossis
auto-automàtik, áutokrat, áutarky
byo-byòloggy, byokèmistry, byoèthiks
dy-dykòtomy, díalog, dyglòssia
en-èntropy, ènerggy, energgètik
endo-endòggenos, endomòrfik, èndoscœp
epi-èpissenter, epidèmik, epìfany
eu-éuloggy, eufónik, eukalìptos
hemi-hèmisfeer, hèmistik, hemisfèrikal
hyper-hypérboly, hyperbòlik, híperdynànik
hypo-hypokòndriak, hípoalerggènik
mega(lo)-megalòpolis, mègalomániak
meso-mesolìthik, mesomórfik
meta-metafìsiks, metàstassis
mykro-míkrokozem, mykróbial
mono-monògamy, monolìthik, mònarky
néo-néofyt, néolìthik, néòloggizem
ortho-órthodox, orthògrafy, orthopédik
paleo-paleolìthik, paleògrafy, pàleontòloggy
pan-pàntheizem, pandèmik, pànoply
para-pàradym, paràlissis, paràmeter
peri-perìfery, perikárdial, perìmeter
poli-pòlimer, polissìlabel, polìgonal
pro(s)-pròsthessis, profètik, prógram
sin-sìnthessis, sìmpathy, sinthètik
sudo-sudo-filòssofer, sudo-analìtikal
ysso-yssorìthmik, yssotònik, yssostàtik

*hýper > híper



Latin

ambi-ambivalent, ambiguos, ambicion
a(d)-adàpt, adiccion, afèct, assért, advérs
ante-antechámber, antecédent, antediluvian
by-byssexual, bycameral, byenial
cercum-cercumspect, cercumstans, cercumvent
cis-cisgender, cisnormativ, cisplatin
con-contact, conduct, confident, consìstent
contra-contracèptiv, contradiccion, contraband
counter-counterfit, counterpoint, cóunterprodùctiv
de-desért, dèsert, déconstùct, depènd
dis-distràct, dissóciæt, discord, dissènt
dy-dyversity, dyssèct, dygression
e-evók, évolúcion, evènt, erùpt
en-enábel, enàct, enàmor, enraptur
ex-extract, extràct, exelent, exèssivly
extra-extravagant, extra-verggin, extramarital
ezz-ezzàct, ezzaminácion, ezzìstens
in-indítment, indicácion, inconsìstent
infra-infraorbital, infrasound, infraspecific
inter-internacional, intérpret, intervencion
intra-intravénos, intracapsular, intraluminal
intro-introduccion, introspeccion, introvérted
mal-malfunccion, maladministrácion, maladàptiv
multi-multicultural, multifaceted, multilingüal
non-nondescript, nonshalant, nonsensical
ob-obstinat, obzérvans, obstrùct, obstakel
omni-omniprèsent, omnipótent, omnìcient
per-perfect, perfèct, pertinent, persìstent
post-postgraduat, postmòdern, postpón
pre-prèfas, prétext, prèvalent, prefér
pro-prógress, progrèss, pròminent
re-regrèt, rètinu, réconèct, réconcév
se-seduccion, sèparat, sécressy
sub-subcultur, submareen, subvért
super-superseed, supersònic, superficial
supra-supranatural, supramolecular
sur-surchargg, surfas, surmíz, surpàss
trans-transcèndent, transformácion
tri-trídent, tríceps, trícikel, trivial
ultra-ultraliberal, ùltrareàccionary
uni-univérsal, unilateral, unificácion
vice-vys-prèsident, vys-roy, vys-rector

A knight of the Bloo Bouk in ceremonial armory, mid 14th century. In 1349, Edward III re-established the knighthood as an institution devoted not only to martial valour, but also to the preservation of the English language and learning.

B. Suffixes

A non-exhaustive list of English suffixes


Nordic

-dmæd, rænd, tœld, herd, coald
-domkinndom, serfdom, Krissendom
-ednæked, wiked, ruged; wonted
-enharken, fawssen; bihœlden, tæken
-ercœlder, beter; luver, mæker
-es[he] woshes, reeches; losses
-est[thau] vexest; fynest, hyest
-ethluveth, geteth, werketh
-fœldmanifœld, threefœld, toofœld
-fulthankful, lustful, sorœful
-houdnæborhoud, brudderhoud
-inggiving, begining, ending
-lesshelpless, hœpless, kearless
-lingdukling, weekling, darling
-lykchyldlyk, godlyk, woumanlyk
-lykyndly, softly, kwikly, porly
-mœstuttermœst, norddernmœst
-nesskyndness, sadness, hapiness
-skinns, lords, boys, gerls, ships
-shipfrendship, œnership, lordship
-st[thau] luvst, lawfst; werst
-sumwurysum, hansum, feersum
-twosht, reecht, lost, spelt, felt
-wydcuntrywyd, nácionwyd, werldwyd
-wyzlykwyz, udderwyz, clokwyz
-werddynewswerddy, præzwerddy
-word(s)awfterwords, forword, leeword
-ysuny, ræny, claudy, yssy, triky


non-Nordic

-abelafordabel, cumftabel, víabel
-ablyrésonably, cumftably, inväriably
-aggmaragg, advântagg, averagg
-ággengágg, aswágg, enrágg
-al*aríval, dispósal, margginal
-ans*atèndans, assìstans, arogans
-ansytenansy, pregnansy, vácansy
-ant*aplicant, assìstant, abùndant
-ark(y)*monarky, pátriark, òligarky
-ary*imàgginary, dìccionary, elementary
-assyembassy, demòkrassy, fàntassy
-atSenat, desperat, considerat
-ætfassinæt, immigræt, comunicæt
-cialcrucial, judicial, fynancial
-cianmaggìcian, fisìcian, musìcian
-cioncondicion, negácion, emócion
-ciospropicios, malicios, herbácios
-ean*Chilean, Carólean, Européan
-énmarén, serén, sardén, mashén
-eerenggineer, career, pryvateer
-ézPortugéz, Chynéz, Japanéz
-ensy*ággensy, continggensy, constìtuensy
-ens*consequens, ezzìstens, resérggens
-ent*confident, indécent, innocent
-eosryteos, buteos, gorggeos
-ery*mònastery, mìstery, artilery
-eskgrotèsk, burlèsk, picturèsk
-ess*prowess, carèss, succèss
-eyalibey, alùmney, rabey
-feyclarifey, notifey, deféy
-ggysìnerggy, ènerggy, apòloggy
-ianrufian, Italian, metropòlitan
-ibelpossibel, responsibel, permissibel
-ik(al)musik, specifik, orthopédik
-iksmetafìsiks, dynàmiks, ékonòmiks
-ilimbecil [missil, móbil, hostil]
-ishfinish, Spanish, replenish
-ist*humanist, fìsissist, ràcionalist
-itycharity, university, serendipity
-iumdelirium, aquarium, ópium
-iv*activ, inàctiv, sensitiv, mèditativ
-ízdemíz, chastíz, disguíz, advíz
-izem*ràcionalizem, redùccionizem
-logdíalog, èpilog, prólog, mònolog
-mentsentiment, increment, detriment
-ory*ìnventory, advísory, armory
-ospíos, infamos, credulos, hénos
-tor*impòstor, àggitætor, precèptor
-turnátur, cultur, imatur, fernitur
-urycentury, penury, perjury
-yàpathy, àgony, írony, gentry
-ylaggyl, gentyl, juvenyl, futyl
-yzànalyz, pénalyz, jepardyz

* unreliable suffixes






Derivation



5. In word formation, there are two kinds of stress derivation:

  • Static derivation occurs when the stress remains in the same place: cult > cultur, cultivæt
  • Metabolic derivation occurs when the stress changes position: àgricultur > agricultural.


Static Derivation

cultcultur, cultural, intercultural, unculturd, cultivæt
visionvisibel, visual, revision, envision, vìsionary
partparty, depàrt, department, parcial, parcialy
mendcomènd, comènded, rècomènd, amendment



Metabolic Derivation

fótograffotògrafer, fotògrafy, fótogràfik
cultpérmacultur, àgricultur, cultivácion
partparticion, participant, participácion
meditætmeditácion, meditátor, prémeditácion


6. Static derivation may require accents to be added or omitted if the number of syllables changes. There are two relevant transitions:

  • oxytone to paroxytone: carèss, carèst > carèssing, carèsses
  • proparoxytone to anteproparoxytone: fassinæt, fassinæts > fàssinæted, fàssinæting


ox. to pox.

carèsscarèssing, carèsses
extràctextràcting, extràcted
ezzàctezzàcting, ezzàcted, ezzàctly
resórsresórces, resórsful



p.pox to ap.pox

participætpartìcipæted, partìcipæting
fassinætfàssinæted, fàssinæting
meditætmèditativ
leggitimatleggìtimassy





Lady Matilda, the Mother of Bloo Bouk, surrounded by monks and scholars, delivers the newly resurfaced original of the Bloo Bouk with Aldhelm’s handwriting to Sherborne Abbey, 1242. The Bloo Bouk is hidden after the Normal conquest, but subsequently disappears. Matilda plays a decisive role in the effort to find the original manuscript.


Composition



7. In word formation, compound words are words made from two or more stems. Compounds may be closed, hyphenated or open:

  • Closed compounds are joined in one word: shortwæv, foutboal, ræncœt
  • Hyphenated compounds are seperated by hyphen: must-hav, hunter-gadderer
  • Open compounds are seperated by a space: shok wæv, skuel bus, hy skuel

8. There is no normative consensus on the use of the above linkings.

9. Compound words may be etimologically unmmixed or mixed:

  • Unmixed compounds have stems from the same etymological family:
    foutboal, kemothèrapy, àgricultur
  • Mixed compounds have stems from different etymological families:
    television, eco-feer, agro-freek

10. Unless established by old usage, mixed compounds should not be written as closed compounds.

11. The stems of non-closed mixed compounds are spelt as separate words with their own keys.



non-closed mixed

elèktro-condùctivGreek key [elèktrik] + Latin key [condùctiv]
síko-worfearGreek key [síko] + Nordic key [worfear]
agro-freekLatin key [agro] + Nordic key [freek]
news páperNordic key [news] + Latin key [páper]


12. The stems of closed mixed compounds are spelt in the Greek key. If they have no Greek stem, they are spelt in the Nordic key.



closed mixed

elèktrokondùktivGreek key
síkowórfearGreek key
agrœfreekNordic key
newspæperNordic key





Inflections



13. Inflection is a change in or addition to the form of a word. Words that admit of inflections are called variable. Variable words may be (i) paranomina, (ii) nomina and (iii) verba:

  • Paranomina are: articles, pronouns, numerals.
  • Nomina are: adjectives and nouns.
  • Verba are verbs.

14. Paranomina may be determiners or substitutes:

  • Determiners appear before nomina: the gerls, thœs gerls, three gerls.
  • Substitutes replace nomina: thæ ar heer, it is thears.

A. Paranomina

English articles, pronouns and numerals


Articles

thethe gerls, the haus
theethee apel, thee essens
aa man, a nácion
anan animal, an opcion
ææ person, æ réson

thee: before vowel
æ: stressed


Demonstratives I

thisthis wouman, this car
theesthees apels, thees pépel
thatthat person, that city
thœsthœs dogs, thœs frends


Demonstratives II

suchsuch lyf, such problems
-selfthe gerl herself, lyf itself
-selvspépel themselvs, we awrselvs
sæmthe sæm dog, the sæm thinns


Interrogatives & Relatives

hwothwot man? hwot?
hwichhwich gerl? hwich ov them? the bouk, hwich Y reed
hoohoo is heer? the man hoo werks
hoomhoom can thæ see? widd hoom? the man hoom Y see
hooshoos haus? the man hoos wyf is il
thatthe gerl that reeds


Indefinite Determiners

sumsum gerl, sum cars
nœ person, nœ bouks
enyeny shoo, eny questions
ydderydder wyn, ydder haus
evryevry song
eecheech city
oaloal tym, oal frends
udderthee udder wouman, udder choices
anudderanudder cercumstans
certancertan pépel
muchmuch tym, much milk
litellitel tym, a litel muny
menymeny problems
fewfew obstakels, a few bouks
severalseveral résons
väriosvärios possibilitys


Indefinite Substitutes I

wunY lyk wun.
nunY lyk nun.
sumY lyk sum.
enyY lyk eny.
ydderY lyk ydder.
oalY lyk oal.
uddersY lyk udders.
anudderY lyk anudder.
muchY lyk much.
litleY lyk (a) litel.
menyY lyk meny.
fewY lyk (a) few.
severalY lyk several.


Indefinite Substitutes II

sum-sumthing, sumwun, sumbody
nœ-nuthing, nœwun, nœbody
eny-enything, enywun, enybody
evry-evrything, evrywun, evrybody
[-ever]hwotever, hwichever, hoo[so]ever, hoom[so]ever, hoosever


Personals

stressedunstressed
Ymeemymyn Ymemymyn
thautheethythyn thautheethythyn
ewewyoryors uuyoryors
heehimhishis hehimhishis
sheeherherhers sheherherhers
ititits ititits
weeusawerawers weusawrawrs
yeeewyoryors yeuyoryors
ewewyoryors uuyoryors
thæthemthearthears thæthemtherthers

hee, shee, mee, wee, yee: proposed by Howell in his influential 1662 Grammar.
ew: from Old English eow [you], object form of ge [ye].



Numerals


wunfersthœlwuns
toosecondhawfdùbel | twys | toofœld
threetherdn therdstripel | thrys | threefœld
foorfoorthn foorthsquadrúpel | foorfœld
fyvfifthn fifthsquintúpel | fyvfœld
sixsixthn sixthssextúpel | sixfœld
sevenseventhn seventhsseptupel | sevenfœld
ætæthn æthsoctupel | ætfœld
nynnynthn nynthsnonupel | nynfœld
tententhn tenthsdecupel | tenfœld
eleveneleventhn eleventhselevenfœld
twelvtwelfthn twelfthstwelvfœld
therteentherteenthn therteenthstherteenfœld
foorteenfoorteenthn foorteenthsfoorteenfœld
fifteenfifteenthn fifteenthsfifteenfœld
sixteensixteenthn sixteenthssixteenfœld
seventeenseventeenthn seventeenthsseventeenfœld
æteenæteenthn æteenthsæteenfœld
nynteennynteenthn nynteenthsnynteenfœld


Numerals II


tententhn tenthsdecupel | tenfœld
twentytwentiethn twentiethstwentifœld
thertythertiethn thertiethsthertifœld
fortyfortiethn fortiethsfortifœld
fiftyfiftiethn fiftiethsfiftifœld
sixtysixtiethn sixtiethssixtifœld
seventyseventiethn seventiethsseventifœld
ætyætiethn ætiethsætifœld
nyntynyntiethn nyntiethsnyntifœld
hundredhundredthn hundredthscentupel | hundredfœld
thausendthausendthn thausendthsthausendfœld
milionmilionthn milionthsmilionfœld
bilionbilionthn bilionthsbilionfœld
triliontrilionthn trilionthstrilionfœld





Henry VIII dismisses a Bloo Bouk delegation of monks and scholars pleading for spelling standardisation, as agreed under Henry VI. He later dissolves Sherborne Abbey and the Knighthood of the Bloo Bouk, and orders the destruction of the Bloo Bouk.

B. Nomina

English adjectives and nouns

15. Nomina may be adjectives or nouns. Adjectives have degree inflections.

  • Degrees are: positive, comparative, superlative.

16. Degrees are synthetic or analytic.

  • Synthetic degrees are shown through inflection: cleen, cleener, cleenest.
  • Analytic degrees are shown through added words: butiful, mor butiful, mœst butiful.


Synthentic Degrees

bigbiger, bigest
smoalsmoaler, smoalest
cleencleener, cleenest
brytbryter, brytest
bisybisier, bisiest
goudbeter, best
badwers, werst
much*mor, mœst
litel*less, leest

* paranomina with degrees.



Analytic Degrees

butifulmor butiful, mœst butiful
impórtantmor impórtant, mœst impórtant
traggikmor traggik, mœst traggik
blasáymor blasáy, mœst blasáy
nècessarymor nècessary, mœst nècessary
strætforwordmor strætforward, mœst strætforward
satisfactorymor satisfactory mœst satisfactory
ìnterestingmor ìnteresting, mœst ìnteresting
kearfulmor kearful, mœst kearful
kategòrikalmor kategòrikal, mœst kategòrikal


Inferiority

cleenless cleen, leest cleen
bigless big, leest big
badless bad, leest bad
traggikless traggik, leest traggik
kearfulless kearful, leest kearful
nècessaryless nècessary, leest nècessary
ìnterestingless ìnteresting, leest ìnteresting
strætforwardless strætforward, leest strætforward
kategòrikalless kategòrikal, leest kategòrikal


17. Nouns have number and case inflections.

  • Numbers are: singular, plural.
  • Cases are: general, genitive.


Parisyllables

GeneralGenitive
Singularthe gerlthe gerls
Pluralthe gerlsthe gerlss


GeneralGenitive
Singularthe boukthe bouks
Pluralthe bouksthe boukss


GeneralGenitive
Singularthe póetthe póets
Pluralthe póetsthe póetss


GeneralGenitive
Singularthe kweenthe kweens
Pluralthe kweensthe kweenss


GeneralGenitive
Singularthe kingthe kinns
Pluralthe kinnsthe kinnss


Imparisyllables

GeneralGenitive
Singularthe prinsthe princes
Pluralthe princesthe princess


GeneralGenitive
Singularthe princèssthe princesses
Pluralthe princessesthe princessess


GeneralGenitive
Singularthe hausthe hausses
Pluralthe haussesthe haussess


GeneralGenitive
Singularthe rœzthe róses
Pluralthe rósesthe rósess


-n Inflections

GeneralGenitive
Singularthe manthe men
Pluralthe mansthe mens


GeneralGenitive
Singularthe woumanthe wimen
Pluralthe woumansthe wimens


GeneralGenitive
Singularthe chyldthe children
Pluralthe chyldsthe childrens


GeneralGenitive
Singularthee oxthee oxs
Pluralthee oxenthee oxens


GeneralGenitive
Singularthe hœs
Pluralthe hœsen


Ablaut Inflections

GeneralGenitive
Singularthe foutthe fouts
Pluralthe feetthe feets


GeneralGenitive
Singularthe goosthe gooses
Pluralthe geesthe geeses


French Endings

GeneralGenitive
Singularthe cafaythe cafays
Pluralthe cafaysthe cafayss


GeneralGenitive
Singularthe pròtegeaythe pròtegeays
Pluralthe pròtegeaysthe pròtegeayss


GeneralGenitive
Singularthee aráythee aráys
Pluralthee aráysthee aráyss


GeneralGenitive
Singularthe decréthe decrés
Pluralthe decrésthe decréss


GeneralGenitive
Singularthe supléythe supléys
Pluralthe supléysthe supléyss


Proper Nouns

GeneralGenitive
SingularHenryHenrys
PluralHenrysHenryss


GeneralGenitive
SingularJæmsJæmses
PluralJæmsesJæmsess


GeneralGenitive
SingularTomasTomasses
PluralTomassesTomassess


GeneralGenitive
SingularFransFrances
PluralFrancesFrancess


GeneralGenitive
SingularFrancisFrancisses
PluralFrancissesFrancissess


GeneralGenitive
SingularSmithSmiths
PluralSmithsSmithss



A scribe at Sherborne Abbey produces a copy of the Bloo Bouk for official chancery use, ca. 1450. Henry VI encouraged government to adopt Bloo Bouk spelling.

C. Verba

English verbs

18. Verbs have inflections called conjugations. English conjugations have basic forms. A basic form is an irreductible word. According to their basic forms, English verbs may be:

  • Monoverbs with only one basic form: must.
  • Biverbs with two basic forms: can, coud.
  • Triverbs with three basic forms: set, sets, seting.
  • Tetraverbs with four basic forms: need, needs, needed, needing.
  • Pentaverbs with five basic forms: giv, givs, gæv, giving, given.
  • To be with the following forms: be, am, ar, is, wos, wer, being, been.

19. The basic forms, which are not distinct in every verb, are:

  • First form as the infinitive.
  • Second form as the third person singular.
  • Third form as the past tense.
  • Fourth form as the present participle.
  • Fifth form as the past participle.

The second form also admits of:

  • a formal third person singular in -[e]th: hath, seteth, needeth, giveth.
  • a rare second person singular in [e]st: hast, setest, needest, givest, art.

In like manner, the third form admits of:

  • a rare second person singular in [e]st: hadst, setst, neededst [didst need], gævst, wert/wost.


To Be

beeamariswoswerbeeingbeen
beamariswoswerbeingben

stressed and unstressed forms



Pentaverbs

IIIIIIIVV
blœblœsblooblowingblœn
brækbræksbrœkbrækingbrœken
chuezchuseschœzchusingchósen
cumcumscæmcumingcum
doo | dodusdiddooing | doingdun
droadroasdroodroaingdroan
eeteetsæt | eteetingeeten
flyflysflooflyingflœn
givgivsgævgivinggiven
gœ | gogœswentgowing | goinggon
lylyslyinglæn
rydrydsrœdrydingriden
rytrytsrœtrytingriten
seeseessoaseeingseen
singsinnssangsinningsung
swimswimsswamswimingswum
tæktækstouktækingtæken


Triverbs

I & IIIIIIV
cutcutscuting
cawstcawstscawsting
costcostscosting
setsetsseting


Biverbs

I & IIIII
cancoud
myt
shalshoud
wilwoud


Monoverbs

I & II [& III]
must
oat to



Scenes of the Apocalypse. Aldhelm seizes the yellow book of chaos from the hands of the devil and destroys it, thereby breaking the power of Devilspel. The devil himself is burned into nothingness. A 14th century illustration.

D. Tetraverbs

English tetraverbs

20. Most English verbs are tetraverbs with the same forms III and V. Tetraverbs may be regular or irregular.



Irregular

IIIIII & VIV
bringbrinnsbroatbrinning
bybysboatbying
cachcachescautcaching
fytfytsfoatfyting
getgetsgotgeting
havhashadhaving
hœldhœldsheldhœlding
mækmæksmædmæking
reedreedsredreeding
sessedsaying
seekseekssoatseeking
shynshynsshonshyning
sitsitssatsiting
standstandsstoudstanding
strykstryksstrukstryking
teechteechestoatteeching
teltelstœldteling
thinkthinksthoatthinking


21. Like all other verbs, tetraverbs are divided into three kinds of stems:

  • Open stems end in a vowel: pay, sæ, flœ, droa.
  • Rhotic stems end in a vowel with r: bar, feer, compair.
  • Closed stems end in a consonant: werk, teech, bring.

22. The standard suffixes of regular tetraverbs are -(e)d and -t for forms III and V.

23. Spelling adjustments may be needed depending on the stem type and number of syllables.

24. The forms of open stems follow different rules for the Nordic and non-Nordic key.



Nordic jane

IIIIII & VIV
plæplæsplædplaying
læslædlaying


French jane

IIIIII & VIV
paypayspaydpaying
staystaysstaydstaying
sautaysautayssautaydsautaying
decáydecáysdecáyddecáying
obáyobáysobáydobáying
conváyconváysconváydconváying

decáy: non-Nordic oxytones require accentuation.


Nordic pete

IIIIII & VIV
freefreesfreedfreeing
peepeespeedpeeing


French pete

IIIIII & VIV
agréagrésagrédagréing
decrédecrésdecréddecréing

Nordic mike

IIIIII & VIV
drydrysdryddrying
dydysdyddying


French mike

IIIIII & VIV
creycreyscreydcreying
treytreystreydtreying
apléyapléysapléydapléying


unstressed -y

IIIIII & VIV
carycaryscarydcarying
wurywuryswurydwurying

Nordic rose

IIIIII & VIV
flœflœsflœdflowing
rœsrœdrowing


French rose

IIIIII & VIV
platéauplatéausplatéaudplatowing or
plateauplateausplateaudplatowing

Nordic luke/hugh

IIIIII & VIV
broobroosbroodbrooing
woowooswoodwooing


French luke/hugh

IIIIII & VIV
susuessuedsuïng
vuvuesvuedvuïng
arguarguesarguedarguïng
revúrevúsrevúdrevúing
acrúacrúsacrúdacrúing

Nordic howie

IIIIII & VIV
baubausbaudbawing
plauplausplaudplawing


French howie

IIIIII & VIV
vouvousvoudvowing
alóualóusalóudalowing

French joy

IIIIII & VIV
cloycloyscloydcloying
emplóyemplóysemplóydemplóying


25. The forms of rhotic stems may follow different rules for the Nordic and non-Nordic key.



common mark

IIIIII & VIV
starstarsstardstaring
barbarsbardbaring

Nordic claire

IIIIII & VIV
shearshearssheardshearing
kearkearskeardkearing


French claire

IIIIII & VIV
pairpairspairdpäring
compaircompairscompairdcompäring

common bert

IIIIII & VIV
stersterssterdstering
okérokérsokérdokéring

Nordic keir

IIIIII & VIV
feerfeersfeerdfeering
steersteerssteerdsteering


French keir

IIIIII & VIV
veerveersveerdvëring
apeerapeersapeerdapëring

common george

IIIIII & VIV
scorscorsscordscoring
abhórabhórsabhórdabhóring

French noor

IIIIII & VIV
curcurscurdcuring
endúrendúrsendúrdenduring


26. The forms of closed stems make no distinction between keys.



wise stems

IIIIII & VIV
næmnæmsnæmdnæming
sinsinssindsining
dingdinnsdinnddinning
poulpoulspouldpouling


weak stems

IIIIII & VIV
robrobsrobdrobing
begbegsbegdbeging
luvluvsluvdluving


dental stems

IIIIII & VIV
needneedsneededneeding
wontwontswontedwonting


strong stems

IIIIII & VIV
taptapstapttaping
werkwerkswerktwerking
lawflawfslawftlawfing


sibilant stems

IIIIII & VIV
vexvexesvextvexing
fechfechesfechtfeching
fishfishesfishtfishing

jess stems

IIIIII & VIV
juggjuggesjuggdjugging
managgmanaggesmanaggdmanagging


then stems

IIIIII & VIV
bæddbæddsbæthdbædding
clœddclœddsclœthdclœdding


zen stems

IIIIII & VIV
ànalyzànalysesànalyzdànalysing
compózcompósescompózdcompósing
brauzbrausesbrauzdbrausing


sen stems

IIIIII & VIV
imprèssimprèssesimprèstimprèssing
incrésincréssesincréstincréssing
convìnsconvìncesconvìnstconvìncing
forsforcesforstforcing
fæsfácesfæstfácing
plæsplássesplæstplássing

fæs, fáces: Latin sen; plæs, plásses: Greek sen




The Archangel Gabriel appears to Aldhelm in a dream and commands the creation of the Bloo Bouk, to teach the world ‟an orderly manner of writing Anglo-Saxon words” against the snares of Devilspel.


Particles



27. Particles are words not subject to inflection: interjections, prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs.



Interjections

æhywau
ahhawmm
alashahawwoohoo
blawhelœo | œ | o œyahoo
byhuhuh
cheershurrahuhuhyeh


Prepositions

abautbihyndintothrooaut
abuvbitweenlykto
acròssbiyondneertowords
agenstbyœverunder
alongdaunofuntil
amungdespítonunto
aróundduringontoup
atexeptovupon
autforsinswidd
awfterfromthanwiddaut
biforinthroowiddin


Conjunctions

andbutorthœ
asforoalthœtil
awfterhwensinsunless
beforhwylthanuntil
bicozifthatwedder


27. Adverbs may be subject to degree:

  • erly, erlier, erliest
  • kwikly, kwiklier, kwikliest
  • wel, beter, best

28. Adverbs may be formed through suffixal derivation:

  • -wyz: clokwyz, eggwyz, lykwyz, udderwyz
  • -ly: kyndly, grætly, witingly, sadly, gladly


Adverbs

agœhaumuchstil
awæhawevernausumtyms
awfterheerneverthear
badlyhwearthen
bearlyhwyoalmœsttodæ
biforjustoalredytomorœ
enufkwytoalwæstoo
erlylætoftenvery
everlæterperhapswel
fawstlitelrawdderyes
fréquentlymæbeseldomyesterdæ
hardlymorœversoonyet





Contractions



29. A contraction is a fusion of two words into one. The main contraction types in English are:

  • pronoun with verb
  • verb with adverb
  • verb with preposition
  • antecedent with verb

A widespread notion regards the use of contractions as informal. However, contractions are recurrent in Ancient Greek in all manners of speech. Contractions were abundant in Middle English writing. In modern English, Shakespeare makes use of contractions in formal, solemn and stately speech. The idea that contractions are casual or careless style is untenable.

30. For ease of handling, a standardisation of contractions eliminates the apostrophe, going back to the Middle English practice.



Pronoun with Verb

YmY am
yuru ar
heeshe is
sheesshe is
itsit is
weerwe ar
thearthæ ar

YvY hav
yoovu hav
heeshe has
sheesshe has
itsit has
weevwe hav
thævthæ hav

YdY had
yoodu had
heedhe had
sheedshe had
weedwe had
thædthæ had

YlY wil
yoolu wil
heelhe wil
sheelshe wil
itlit wil
weelwe wil
thælthæ wil

YdY woud
yoodu woud
heedhe woud
sheedshe woud
weedwe woud
thædthæ woud

YlY shal
yoolu shal
heelhe shal
sheelshe shal
itlit shal
weelwe shal
thælthæ shal



Verb with Adverb

æntam not
isntis not
arntar not
wosntwos not
werntwer not

havnthav not
hasnthas not
hadnthad not

dœntdo not
dusntdus not
didntdid not

wœntwil not
woudntwoud not
shantshal not
shoudntshoud not
cawntcan not
cantcan not
canotcan not
coudntcoud not
mæntmæ not
mytntmyt not
mustntmust not
needntneed not
oatntoat not

-t can be omitted before consonant: he didn fœn. Y wosn heer. She dusn kear. Ew havn werkt.




Verb with Preposition

gonagoing to
gotagot to
wanawant to


Antecedent with Verb


-s- is : That gerls aryving ryt nau. Naus the tym. Heers the gerl.
-s- has : My mudders red yor bouk. Anudders arívd.




Geoffrey Chaucer recites a passage from the Canterbury Tales to a group of knights of the Bloo Bouk in a tavern, London 1383. The Knighthood was an early patron of Chaucer, who took active part in the influential 1387 spelling conclave.


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